While virtue originated as personal morality, its cultivation was also a communal responsibility

By Professor Cheng Songliu

In his bookThe Origin and Goal of History, German philosopher Karl Jaspers introduced the concept of the “Axial Age”, which has gained widespread recognition in global academia. Jaspers argued that between 800 and 300 BCE, ancient civilisations – including Greece, China, India, and Israel – produced great thinkers whose philosophical principles shaped the foundations of distinct cultural traditions, influencing human life to this day. A careful examination of the works of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Laozi, Confucius, as well as Indian sages and Israelite prophets, reveals a shared focus on humanity. Their insights into the cosmos, human existence, and human nature reached unprecedented heights, particularly in the philosophies of pre-Qin China and ancient Greece.

I. The moral value of ren (benevolence) and its role in social harmony

The Analects of Confucius recounts an anecdote: upon hearing that a stable had caught fire, Confucius immediately asked whether anyone had been harmed, showing no concern for material losses. Horses, despite being valuable assets and essential means of transportation in his time, paled in comparison to the value of human life. This act exemplifies Confucius’ concept of ren (仁, often translated as ‘benevolence’), which centres on care and compassion for one’s fellow beings. Mencius, who carried forward Confucius’ teachings, elaborated on this idea, declaring that “the heart of compassion is the seed of ren.” He argued that only by empathising with the suffering and difficulties of others can true benevolence arise.

During China’s Axial Age, Confucius reinterpreted the ‘Mandate of Heaven’ (tianming), placing morality at its core and elevating it to a sacred status through ren. To him, rituals and music (liyue) embodied the ideal social order, with ren as their spiritual foundation and unifying virtue, fostering societal harmony. Ren was not merely a matter of personal cultivation; it also demanded “extending generosity to the people and aiding the masses.” In Confucius’ vision, ren had to be applied to governance to achieve social harmony.

II. Virtue and social harmony in ancient Greek philosophy

Among Greek thinkers of the Axial Age, Plato stands as a pivotal figure, bridging the teachings of his mentor Socrates and influencing his successors, such as Aristotle. In his seminal work The Republic, Plato outlined four cardinal virtues for citizens: wisdom (for rulers), courage (for warriors), temperance (for producers), and justice – the harmonious balance of the first three. Justice, according to Plato, required each social class to fulfill its role without overstepping, maximising individual potential for the collective good. This principle constituted the “greatest justice” and the foundation of societal happiness. For Plato, while virtue originated as personal morality, its cultivation was also a communal responsibility critical to social harmony.

Plato’s student, Aristotle, expanded upon these ideas by introducing the concept of eudaimonia (human flourishing or happiness) as the highest good. He argued that eudaimonia is achieved through virtuous activity, which is inherently tied to the well-being of society. For both Plato and Aristotle, individual virtue and social harmony were inseparable, with moral cultivation serving as the bridge between the two.

III. Shared values: Moral cultivation and the pursuit of social harmony

When it comes to the paths of moral cultivation and the development of personal virtue, ancient Chinese and Greek philosophers diverged significantly. Confucius and Mencius advocated an introspective approach: “Ren resides in the human heart.” They sought the roots of righteousness not in external ‘heaven’ but within, urging self-cultivation as a means to refine morality and better serve society. In contrast, Plato divided reality into two realms: the ‘sensible world’ (of flux and change) and the ‘intelligible world’ (of eternal Forms). For Plato, knowledge arose from rational inquiry into external Forms, particularly the ‘Form of the Good’ – the ultimate source of knowledge, morality, and social harmony.

Despite these differing approaches – introspection versus external inquiry – both traditions ultimately converged in their application of moral cultivation to governance. Plato’s ‘Form of the Good’ functioned as an ethical standard and epistemological foundation, attainable through rational inquiry and serving as a pathway to harmony. Similarly, Confucius and Mencius championed inward reflection and lifelong self-cultivation as means to perfect one’s character, which in turn informed rituals and governance aimed at achieving social harmony. In this way, harmony became a shared ideal in both ancient Chinese and Greek philosophy.

IV. The modern significance of Chinese philosophical values on morality and social harmony

A cultural tradition that endures for millennia is, in essence, the historical DNA of a civilisation. It profoundly shapes the development of a nation. One of the reasons for the uninterrupted continuity of Chinese civilisation is the vitality of its traditional culture, which emphasises morality and social harmony.

First, Confucian philosophy underscores the importance of improving the lives of ordinary people. Confucius believed that a government’s primary responsibility is to ensure the well-being of its people, focusing on population welfare (shu zhi), economic prosperity (fu zhi), and universal education (jiao zhi). These ideals resonate with China’s current goals of building a modern society that prioritises the people’s desire for a better life.

Second, traditional Chinese society, rooted in an agrarian economy, developed a self-reliant ethos by maximising its internal potential. This focus on internal strength fostered a sense of cultural pride and continuity. The pursuit of social harmony, peace, and shared prosperity has long been a fundamental theme of Chinese civilisation and remains integral to China’s modernisation.

Modern initiatives such as poverty alleviation, rural-urban integration, and the promotion of ‘common prosperity’ demonstrate how traditional Confucian values continue to influence governance and societal development. These practices highlight the enduring relevance of moral and social harmony as envisioned by ancient Chinese philosophers, and their alignment with the goals of contemporary Chinese modernisation.

Professor Cheng Songliu: Counselor to the Hunan Provincial People’s Government. Professor, Changsha University of Science & Technology