Mutual trust and understanding between or among friends, have been highly regarded both in Chinese and Greek philosophy

By Professor Kostas Gouliamos

The value of friendship irradiates China`s commitment to building peaceful relations and fostering a harmonious global society. Though, China, Cyprus and Greece enjoy a respected friendship. In view of this, Daofeng He (2022) has drawn attention to the fact that “in comparing Chinese and Greek philosophy during humanity’s first great philosophical awakening, it’s not hard to see their similarities and differences”. Indeed, true friendship, mutual trust and understanding between or among friends, have been highly regarded both in Chinese and Greek philosophy for thousands of years and continue to have practical significance in an era of multilateralism.

Ancient Greek and Chinese ethics were centrally concerned with questions about how to live one’s life, how to deal with one’s emotions, how one should relate to friends and family, and what is a friendship. In answering these questions, both ancient Greek and Chinese philosophers invoked virtues, and particularly explored the role of intellect and emotion in the development of virtue, whether different groups of people should exhibit different virtues. A comparative inquiry allows us to fully appreciate the contributions made by these philosophical traditions, which consequently will denote themes of similarities and/or points of divergence. For instance, the notion of “ren” – the most basic of all virtues in Confucius (551-479 BCE) theory – illustrates the behaviour that an exemplary human being demonstrates to promote a flourishing human community. Moreover, the Confucian hypothesis of “ren” – as a foundational virtue- has historically look upon an individual not as a morally autonomous individual but as a social being, whose identity derives from his/her interaction with and conduct within the broader human community.

Additionally, “ren” means a sensitivity of empathy for the wellbeing of others. According to Zhang Guoqing and Ruut Veenhoven (2008) “Confucius`s `ren` means `to love fellow-men, and where there is ‘ren’, there is man”. Similarly, Aristotle (384-322) – ensuing Socrates` and Plato`s ideals – takes the virtue dispositions as central to wellbeing and a well-lived life. Generally, Aristotle meets Confucian theory as he conceives “wisdom through those deliberative, emotional, and social skills that enable us to put our general understanding of well-being into practice in ways that are suitable to each occasion” (R. Kraut, 2001).

For Aristotle, a person must acquire – through training in the domain of sciences, mathematics, and philosophy – an understanding of what goodness is with the aim to experience wellbeing and, accordingly, to develop a proper appreciation of friendship within the sphere of human community. Overall, the Aristotelian “goodness” is similar or an analogous moral virtue to the “ren”. One could say that within the Confucian conception, “ren” – embodying the virtue of goodness – is the ultimate virtue of ethics. It is also worth because in the Aristotelian “Nicomachean Ethics” (books VIII and IX) friendship is necessary to succeed the situation of ‘good spirit` (eudaimonia). Indeed, in the “Nicomachean Ethics” (2002) Aristotle demonstrates the intercourse between virtuous activity and friendship. He classifies friendship into three types:

I. Friendship of utility,

II. Friendship of pleasure, and

III. Friendship based on what is goodness

In his view, the friendship for the search of goodness is an impeccable type of friendship. Besides, in Aristotelian ethics human virtue could be divided into two general categories:

I. Intellectual virtues, and

II. Moral virtues.

Both categories require prioritization of action and, in view of that, an intellectual capacity, which is called “phrónesis” (discretion). Nonetheless, he justified happiness as a moral activity by a virtuous person who wants to generate a fulfilling life. Similarly, in Chinese culture friendship is grasped as a vital aspect towards fulfilling life. However, in Chinese society friendship is also protracted to professional linkages and/or is sensed as a network of bonds and relationships, known as “guanxi”.

Overall, as Chinese culture places great emphasis on harmony and connectedness, friendship plays a decisive role in fostering these values. In particular, the ancient Chinese notion of harmony is best understood as a comprehensive process that encompasses the friendship`s moral (goodness) and aesthetical dimensions. Besides, there is an astonishing resemblance between the Chinese and the Greek philosophical evolution on the notion of harmony during the “axial” age. The English word “harmony” is etymologically rooted in the Greek word “άρμονία”, which means “concord of sounds”. Heraclitus and the Pythagorean circles are among the earliest Greek philosophers to explore the notion of harmony. Particularly, Heraclitus recognises the rise of innovation involves the integration and/or unity of opposites.

To some extent, Heraclitus’s understanding of harmony resembles his Chinese counterpart (Confucius, Lao-Tzu). Heraclitus and Confucius theorise harmony both as an amalgamation of different forces and an on-going process in a fluid, yet dynamic world based on a mutual engagement, striving for equity and a peaceful coexistence. For Lao-Tzu contrasts between opposites generate harmony. The Dao is reached through harmonious interactions of “yin” and “yang” by maintaining an equilibrium act (identified in Confucianism as “zhong” 中) and/or or by resolving conflicts through creativity. In view of this, Max Weber has wrongly interpreted Confucianism harmony as conformity. According to Chenyang Li (2014) “Confucian harmony has been systematically misinterpreted in the West as presupposing an invariable grand scheme of things that pre-exists in the world to which humanity has to conform”. Nevertheless, for Li Confucian harmony is multilateral and multifaceted.

Overall, connecting the Global Civilisation Initiative with the global community of shared future for humanity, President Xi Jinping’s thought (2023) provides venues for discussion towards coexistence, peace and compound solidarity. It is a political thought that contributes to the necessary peaceful-centred culture aligned with the modernisation that epitomizes what exactly Wang Huning (1988) contends as China’s “history-society-culture nexus”, including – inter alia – “the significance of sovereignty, the international order and…the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence” (Wang H.1988).

Professor Kostas Gouliamos is former Rector of the European University Cyprus